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 The Chinese did not choose one religion or philosophy to the exclusion of all others. They blended the traditions of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. A dramatic example of such blending is the Sarcophagus of Prince Zheng Jing (Cheng Ching) at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. The largest scenes carved into the surface of the smooth black limestone depict the most famous paragons of Confucian virtue. One story is that of the man who at the age of 60 dressed as a little boy and played with toys to make his parents feel young again. Above this scene, Taoist immortals roam the landscape, riding clouds to sacred mountains. On the cover to the epitaph stone, Buddhist lotus imagery suggests the wish for spiritual emancipation and rebirth. |
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In China, the concept of family lineage extends in two directions – to the past and the many generations that came before and to the future, especially the male descendants. The relationship between living and dead is considered real and reciprocal. One offers respect to ancestors in return for guidance and protection from harm. Ancestor worship became inseparably linked with the Confucian virtue of filial piety, the respect for elders and one’s parents. In his teachings, Confucius (551 – 479 B.C.E) emphasized filial piety along with benevolence (ren), virtue (de) and proper conduct (li), as the basis for a humane society. Relationships, all hierarchical in nature, provided the framework for this society and shaped moral actions: ruler
and subject Making offerings and following proscribed rites throughout one’s lifetime was one’s duty, to be performed with grace and sincerity. Unlike contemporary American culture where "it’s the thought that counts," in China, thoughts must be followed by deeds. In the Han Dynasty when Confucianism was incorporated into the state bureaucracy, officials secured positions and promotions based on their perceived embodyment of Confucian virtues. Therefore, funerals came to involve a dual purpose: to sincerely offer respect to the deceased while also seeking social advancement through the expression of this respect.
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Taoist Transcendence While lineage, social status, and filial piety characterize Confucian-inspired funerary art, Taoist art offers a wish for personal spiritual attainment. The great philosopher Lao Zi (or ambiguously, "Old Master," 5th century B.C.E.) is credited with founding the school of thought known as Taoism. His work actually built upon the more ancient beliefs of nature worship. Even in Lao Zi’s time, mountains connected heaven with earth, and thus, were sacred places where immortals and animal spirits resided. Lao Zi articulated a wider vision – one that encompassed the entire order and rhythm of the universe. This natural rhythm was called the Tao, or "way." The human quest for harmony and spirituality could be achieved by unifying oneself with the Tao. As a result, a sense of freedom from social and physical constraints could be achieved. Mountains, clouds, and images of flight (such as birds) appeared frequently in Taoist art. Taoists believed immortals could roam unhindered to the sacred mountains. Incense burners in the shape of mountains emitted smoke through small holes. This represented clouds and mist, considered by Taoists be the breath of the earth.
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